What does it mean to learn? Is it the reception and storage of knowledge and information, or does learning encompass more than instruction and learning often exemplified in traditional classrooms?
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Learning theory
A TEDx talk worth listening to
Raj Dhingra gave this presentation at TEDxBend in 2012. Dhingra talks about the fact that although the potential availability of technology in the learning environment has exploded, many instructors are primarily using old world techniques of instructionism. This outdated technique where the instructor stands on the stage – the sage of the stage rather than the guy on the side – should be replaced with blended learning techniques. Dhingra is also a proponent of increasing access to technology using innovative methods.
Do digital natives and immigrants exist? Researcher Marc Prensky coined these terms as a method of highlighting some generalizations around the generations of tech users including those who grew up before the advent of many of today's technology we use (digital immigrants). Generalizations are also assigned to digital natives who grew up with recent technology who he segments as those born in 1980 or later.
Much like national immigrants who grew up speaking a foreign language before immigrating to a new nation, digital immigrants are said to use technology with an accent and experience some difficulties expressing themselves to the level of proficiency of younger generations who were born with technology surrounding them.
These descriptors are loosely helpful from the perspective of a instructional designer in that it's important to consider the general technical aptitude of one's audience when deciding best methods of sharing instruction. As with all generalizations, there are exceptions to stereotypes, and in the case of the generalizations surrounding digital natives and digital immigrants, the exceptions are plentiful.
Technology is vast. It's expansiveness makes it impossible for any one person to "know technology". There are simply too many technology-related subjects in existence that mastering them all, let alone having a general understanding of all-things-technology, is impossible. There isn't really a pure expert in "technology" young or old. An expert networking specialist likely knows little about web development. A video production editing specialist can master linear editing software but may have little conceptual understanding of iOS application development. One's ability to master any area of technology has little to do with her generation and more to do with her unique interests in specific areas of interest. Those who are interested in app development will likely engage in activities and studies that will expand their knowledge in that area. Because interests are individual and don't always correlate with age, our audience of technology literate users, generally speaking, is diverse.
Differences in the technological skills and abilities of technology users in their 20's, 30's, 40's, and 50's, I don't believe, has a huge amount of variation if interests are aligned. I believe a lot of the generalizations Prensky assigns to digital immigrants become more evident in many users in their 60's, 70's, and beyond, although there are still myriad exceptions.
I love this PBS Idea Channel spot on the subject:
So, do digital natives and immigrants exist? My answer is yes, in general terms, they do, but in specific terms, they don't. From the perspective of a designer, it's important to consider the unique set of technology skills and aptitudes your users will have when designing material.
"Thanksgiving grace 1942" by Marjory Collins, photographer for Farm Security Administration. - Photo by Marjory Collins. Farm Security Administration - Office of War Information Photograph Collection (Library of Congress). Licensed under Public domain via Wikimedia Commons.
The basis of Schema Theory maps knowledge in related clusters called schema. Cognitive scientists and psychologist sometimes use this terminology in an attempt to map the way we classify knowledge into groups. For example, each person likely has a general cluster of knowledge around the schema of a car. We know it has certain parts like wheels, an engine, seats, and we know that certain parts tend to be located in certain areas. E.g., wheels are located at the base of the car.
Our schemata are influenced by our culture. Most Americans have a Thanksgiving Schema, for example. We have basic knowledge of what Thanksgiving entails and can understand conversations where Thanksgiving is referenced. One need not go into detail about dinner food when speaking with an American about the Thanksgiving Day parade. This is because most people have a basic knowledge or schema on what Thanksgiving means. Referencing "Thanksgiving" only serves to add context to a conversation in this example.
When we are creating learning materials designed to advanced learners' understanding of a subject. It's important to use examples that draw from familiar schema learners are likely to be familiar with. If examples are relatable and familiar, learners are less likely to get hung up on unimportant details and potentially more likely to learn on deeper levels as they relate new information with old knowledge.
The Information Processing Model. Designed by AwesomeNikk - Own work. Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.
Anyone who designs instructional materials will benefit from understanding basic principles of how the human mind learns. The Information Processing Model attempts to map out steps of learning while identifying whether said learning is taking place in a human's short-term, long-term memory, or in a place called our sensory register.
The human mind has three variations of memory.
- The sensory memory can store images, sounds, and other environmental stimulation for anywhere between 0.5 to 2 seconds.
- The short-term memory is where are current thoughts occur. This "working-memory" processes information and can focus on only a handful of thoughts at any given time.
- The long-term memory has huge capacity. Our knowledge is stored in our long-term memory and can later be retrieved and used by our working memory.
Oatmeal cookies. By slgckgc (originally posted to Flickr as In The Cookie Jar) CC-BY-2.0
So how does someone learn about something she has never considered before, and how does this model illustrate how learning occurs? Let's say you do not know how to bake oatmeal cookies, but you are attempting to learn how by reading a cook book recipe on oatmeal cookies. The Information Processing Model shows us that as you glance at the text of the recipe, your eyes read the words and this image is recorded for about 1/2 second in your sensory register. Your brain than attempts to make sense of the words using perception as this information enters your short-term memory where thought occurs. As you read through the recipe, your short-term memory is engaged as you concentrate on identifying key components and steps in your cookie baking. At this point, you are actively drawing from your long-term memory as you read items that have previous meaning like "butter," "salt," "pre-heat," etc. You follow the recipe, bake the cookies, enjoy them, and reflect on your experience. As you reflect, items you felt were notable are stored in your long-term memory for future oatmeal-cookie-baking sessions.
This example is not perfect, simplified, and doesn't fully give justice to this fascinating model of learning. If you are interested in learning more about the Information Processing Model, I've found this Wikipedia article helpful on the subject and chapter 3 of Michael E. Martin's textbook, Learning and Cognition: The Design of the Mind.
Karen Swan, Ed.D.
Long before people and communities were connected through the internet, distance education existed to facilitate learning over large spans of geographic distance. Learning material in a pre-internet, pre-industrial setting was naturally rigid and student interaction was challenging if not non-existent. I recently read this chapter from Dr. Karen Swan's research in the book Understanding Distance Learning in the 21st Century: Teaching and Learning in a New Era. Dr. Swan writes about how the advent of online learning has changed the the model of learning from a materials-focused approach to a student-focused approach.
Community of Inquiry (CoI) model CC BY-SA 3.0
This model of online learning is called the Community of Inquiry (CoI) model. It's based on the notion that a learning community must be developed with a cognitive, social, and teaching presence.
What I found most interesting from Swan's writing was the reference to research that indicates a correlation between successful online learning and the individual student's ability to engage and connect with her or his peers in a learning setting. Certainly this connection is easier to obtain in a physical setting; considering the past difficulty students likely faced in pre-industrial/pre-internet distance learning settings, it's clear that the required framework element of social presence is becoming more attainable as our tools for connecting improve.
Here's a bit more on the CoI model as it applies to an academic setting: